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so that, as they both open upward or outward in the airpump, or rarefier, they will both open downward or inward in the condenser.

348. And on the same principles, namely, of the compression and elasticity of the air, depends the use of the Diving Bell, which is a large vessel, in which a person descends to the bottom of the sea, the open end of the vessel being downward; only, in this case the air is not condensed by forcing more of it into the same space, as in the condensing engine; but by compressing the same quantity of air into a less space in the bell, by increasing always the force which compresses it.

349. If a vessel of any sort be inverted into water, and pushed or let down to any depth in it; then by the pressure of the water some of it will ascend into the vessel, but not so high as the water without, and will compress the air into less space, according to the difference between the heights of the internal and external water; and the density and elastic force of the air will be increased in the same proportion, as its space in the vessel is diminished.

A

G

So, if the tube CE be inverted, and pushed down into water, till the external water exceed the internal, by the height AB, and the air of the tube be reduced to the space CD; then that air is pressed both by a column of water of the height AB, and by the whole atmosphere which presses on the upper surface of the water; consequently the CD is to the whole space CE, as the weight of the atmosphere, is to the weights both of the atmosphere and the column of water AB. So that, if AB be about 34 feet, which is equal to the force of the atmosphere, then CD will be equal to CE; but if AB be double of that, or

space

B

F

68 feet, then CD will be cE; and so on. And hence, by knowing the depth AF, to which the vessel is sunk, we can easily find the point D, to which the water will rise within it at any time. For let the weight of the atmosphere at that time be equal to that of 34 feet of water; also, let the depth AF be 20 feet, and the length of the tube CE 4 feet: then, putting the height of the internal water DE, 34 AB 34: CE: CD,

it is

that is 34+ AF DE : 34: CE: CE - DE,

or

54

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x: 34: 4:4

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hence, multiplying extremes and means, 216 58.x + xa

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136, and the root is = 2 very nearly 1414 of a foot, or 17 inches nearly; being the height DE to which the water will rise within the tube.

350. But if the vessel be not equally wide throughout, but of any other shape, as of a bell-like form, such as is used in diving; then the altitudes will not observe the proportion above, but the spaces or bulks only will respect that proportion, namely, 34 + AB 34 capacity CKL capacity CHI, if it be common or fresh water; and 33+ AB: 33: capacity CKL : capacity CHI, if it be sea-water. From which proportion, the height DE may

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be found, when the nature or shape of the vessel or bell CKL is known.

OF THE BAROMETER.

351. THE BAROMETER is an instrument for measuring the pressure of the atmosphere, and elasticity of the air, at any time. It is commonly made of a glass tube, of near 3 feet long, close at one end, and filled with mercury.. When the tube is full, by stopping the open end with the finger, then inverting the tube, and immersing that end. with the finger into a bason of quicksilver, on removing the finger from the orifice, the fluid in the tube will de scend into the bason, till what remains in the tube be of the same weight with a column of the atmosphere, which is commonly between 28 and 31 inches of quicksilver; and leaving an entire vacuum in the upper end of the tube above the mercury. For, as the upper end of the tube is quite void of air, there is no pressure downwards but from the column of quicksilver, and therefore that will be an exact balance to the counter pressure of the whole column of atmosphere, acting on the orifice of the tube by the quicksilver in the bason. The upper 3 inches of the tube, namely, from 28 to 31 inches, have a scale attached to them, divided into inches, tenths, and hundredths, for measuring the length of the column at all times, by observing which division of the scale the top of the quicksilver is opposite to; as it ascends and descends within these limits, according to the state of the atmosphere.

VOL. II.

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So

So that the weight of the quicksilver in the tube, above that in the bason, is at all times equal to the weight or pressure of the column of atmosphere above it, and of the same base with the tube: and hence the weight of it may at all times be computed; being nearly at the rate of half a pound avoirdupois for every inch of quicksilver in the tube, on every square inch of base; or more exactly it is of a pound on the square inch, for every inch in the altitude of the quicksilver: for the cubic inch of quicksilver weighs justlb, or nearly a pound, in the mean temperature of 55° of heat. And consequently, when the barometer stands at 30 inches, or 2 feet high, which is nearly the medium or standard height, the

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whole pressure of the atmosphere is equal to 142 pounds, on every square inch of the base: and so in proportion for other heights.

OF THE THERMOMETER.

352. THE THERMOMETER is an instrument for measuring the temperature of the air, as to heat and cold. It is found by experience, that all bodies expand by heat, and contract by cold: and hence the degrees of expansion become the measure of the degrees of heat. Fluids are more convenient for this purpose, than solids: and quicksilver is now most commonly used for it. A very fine glass tube, having a pretty large hollow ball at the bottom, is filled about half way up with quicksilver: the whole being then heated very hot till the quicksilver rise quite to the top, the top is then hermetically sealed, so as perfectly to exclude all communication with the outward air. Then, in cooling, the quicksilver contracts, and consequently its surface descends in the tube, till it come to a certain point, correspondent to the temperature or heat of the air. And when the weather becomes warmer, the quicksilver ex

pands,

pands, and its surface rises in the tube;
and again contracts and descends when
the weather becomes cooler. So that, by
placing a scale of any divisions against
the side of the tube, it will show the
degrees of heat, by the expansion and
contraction of the quicksilver in the
tube; observing at what division of the
scale the top of the quicksilver stands.
And the method of preparing the scale,
as used in England, is thus :-Bring the so-
thermometer into the temperature of
freezing, by immersing the ball in water
just freezing, or in ice just thawing, and
mark the scale where the mercury then
stands, for the point of freezing. Next,
immerge it in boiling water; and the
quicksilver will rise to a certain height
in the tube; which mark also on the
scale, for the boiling point, or the heat
of boiling water. Then the distance be-
tween these two points, is divided into
180 equal divisions, or degrees; and the
like equal degrees are also continued to

[graphic]

any extent below the freezing point, and above the boiling point. The divisions are then numbered as follows, namely, at the freezing point is set the number 32, and consequently 212 at the boiling point; and all the other numbers in their order.

This division of the scale is commonly called Fahrenheit's. According to this division, 55 is at the mean temperature of the air in this country; and it is in this temperature, and in an atmosphere which sustains a column of 30 inches of quicksilver in the barometer, that all measures and specific gravities are taken, unless when otherwise mentioned; and in this temperature and pressure, the relative weights, or specific gravities of air, water, and quicksilver, are as

13 for air, Sand these also are the weights of a cu1000 for water, bic foot of each, in avoirdupois ounces, 13600 for mercury; (in that state of the barometer and thermometer. For other states of the thermometer, each of these bodies expands or contracts according to the following rate, with each degree of heat, viz.

Air about

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35 part of its bulk, 6666 part of its bulk, part of its bulk.

ON THE MEASUREMENT OF ALTITUDES BY THE BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER.

353. FROM the principles laid down in the scholium to prop. 69, concerning the measuring of altitudes by the barometer, and the foregoing descriptions of the barometer and thermometer, we may now collect together the precepts for the practice of such measurements, which are as follow:

First. Observe the height of the barometer at the bottom of any height, or depth, intended to be measured; with the temperature of the quicksilver, by means of a thermometer attached to the barometer, and also the temperature of the air in the shade by a detached thermometer.

Secondly. Let the same thing be done also at the top of the said height or depth, and at the same time, or as near the same time as may be. And let those altitudes of barometer be reduced to the same temperature, if it be thought necessary, by correcting either the one or the other, that is, augment the height of the mercury in the colder temperature, or diminish that in the warmer, by its part for every degree of difference of the two,

Thirdly. Take the difference of the common logarithms of the two heights of the barometer, corrected as above if necessary, cutting off 3 figures next the right hand for decimals, when the log-tables go to 7 figures, or cut off only 2 figures when the tables go to 6 places, and so on; or in general remove the decimal point 4 places more towards the right hand, those on the left hand being fathoms in whole numbers.

Fourthly. Correct the number last found for the difference of temperature of the air, as follows: Take half the sum of the two temperatures, for the mean one; and for every degree which this differs from the temperature 31°, take so many times the part of the fathoms above found, and add them if the mean temperature be above 31°, but subtract them if the mean temperature be below 31°; and the sum or difference will be the true altitude in fathoms: or, being multiplied by 6, it will be the altitude in feet. 354. Example 1. Let the state of the barometers and thermometers be as follows; to find the altitude, viz.

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