Gregory VII.; which became the cause of much subsequent contention with the German emperors. Gregory VII. first decreed the celibacy of the clergy; in order to bind them more closely to the hierarchal service.

The papal power was greatly increased by the Crusades, or wars of the Cross, against the Mohamedans, for the recovery of Jerusalem. The first was commenced in 1096, under Peter the Hermit, a monk patronized by pope Urban II.; and three years after, Jerusalem was taken by Godfrey of Bouillon, and his associates. In 1147, a second Crusade was got up by St. Barnard, and Pope Eugene III., to sustain the Christians in the East; in which Louis VII. of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, failed of success. The third Crusade was begun in 1188, by Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, stimulated by Pope Clement III., to recover Jerusalem, which the Turks had retaken, ten years before. Richard defeated Saladin and the Turks at Ascalon, in 1192; but ended this crusade by a truce with them soon after. The fourth Crusade, began in 1202, under Baldwin, count of Flanders, who went no farther than Constantinople: and the fifth and last Crusade, made in 1218, by St. Louis (Lewis IX.) of France, ended with his capture, and ransom, in Egypt, soon after.

:

In 1177, Pope Alexander III., compelled the emperor Frederick of Germany to hold his stirrup, and kiss his foot and in 1198, Pope Innocent III., subjected Rome itself to the temporal power of the papal chair. Under him, the Inquisition was founded, in 1204, by the agency of Dominic de Guzman; being first aimed against the Reformers in France; and next against the Jews in Spain. Pope Boniface VIII., was imprisoned, in 1303, by Philip the Fair of France; and from 1308 to 1377, the popes resided at Avignon. In 1378, two popes were chosen at the same time; Clement VII., by the French; and Urban VI., by the Italians. This division is called the great schism of the west. The council of Constance, convoked in 1414, by the German emperor, Sigismund, deposed John XXII., and proclaimed itself superior to the pope.

The Reformation, begun by Luther in 1517, (page 154), and which neither the power nor the policy of Leo X. could suppress, has liberated the half of Christendom from ecclesiastical usurpation. To counteract this, the order of Jesuits was founded, in 1536, by Loyola, under Pope Paul III.; (p. 154); its members promising implicit obedience to the papal power; and their professed object being the conversion of heretics and the heathen. Their machinations led to their suppression, in the last century, by most of the European sovereigns: but not to their extinction. Pope Sixtus V., who died in 1590, has been called the last Roman pontiff that kings had reason to fear. Pope Pius VII., was forced, in 1801, to buy his personal freedom of Bonaparte; and owed his restoration, in 1814, at least in part, to the protestant states of England and Prussia. In restoring the Jesuits, and opposing the dissemination of the Bible, he only followed the maxim of his predecessors, "never to give up the slightest claims, but to wait for opportunities."

Italy presents a sad example of the effects of division, and discord, among the members of a great nation. We shall first glance over its connected history; and then refer to its separate divisions. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, having overthrown the western, or Roman empire, A. D. 476, assumed the title of king of Italy. He was defeated and slain, in 493, by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, (Eastern Goths), assisted by the Visigoths, (or Western Goths): and the Gothic kingdom in Italy continued till it was overrun by Narses, the Byzantine general, in 552; by whose agency Alboin, king of the Lombards, became king of Italy in 568. The last Lombard king, Didier, was dethroned by Charlemagne of France, who united Italy to his own domains, in 774. Under his descendants, Italy was alternately separated from and united with France, till Otho I., the Great, of Germany, became its master, and was crowned emperor of the Romans, in 962.

Otho and his successors allowed many of the Italian cities to have separate republican governments: the chief officers of each being two consuls, elected annually. These cities, with their dependent territories, were styled the Italian Republics; among which were Milan, Pavia, Lodi, Florence, and Pisa. Venice and Genoa were also called republics; their chief officer being styled the doge. These states were frequently engaged in contests with each other, and involved in broils with the popes and German emperors. In the war between Milan and Pavia, in 1129, arose the distinction of the Guelfs, (Guelphs), and Ghibelines, (Gibelins). The Guelfs, so called from the family of Welfs in Germany, including the duke of Bavaria, favored the pope, and Lothaire of Saxony; while the Ghibelines, named from Wibelung or Waiblinga, a German castle in Franconia, espoused the cause of Conrad of Hohenstaufen, of the house of Swabia. In general, the Guelfs, and the house of Este were the partizans of the popes; and the Ghibelines, headed by the family Da Romano, favored the German emperors. But we have no room to pursue this complicated subject farther.

Venice became a distinct state as early as A. D. 697, when its first doge was elected; but the present city was built in 809. It grew rapidly in the time of the Crusades; and enjoyed the chief commerce of the east, till the discovery of the southern passage to India; after which it began to decline. Cyprus was ceded to Venice in 1486; but taken by the Turks in 1571; who also took Candia in 1699. Venice continued free till the French Revolution; which resulted in its final subjection to Austria, in 1814. Milan became a duchy under Visconti, in 1395; subject to Spain, in 1535; and it has belonged to Austria since 1706, except during the French Revolution. In 1815 it was united with Venice, to form the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, which is now a part of the Austrian empire.

Genoa, became a republic in 953, and was for a long time second only to Venice, in commerce and wealth. It was engaged in long wars with Pisa; and contended with Venice, for the dominion of the Mediterranean. The former wars ended in 1284, in the defeat of the Pisans; and the latter in 1381, in the peace of Turin, with Venice. Genoa continued independent till the French Revolution; but was

incorporated with France in 1805; and finally assigned to the kingdom of Sardinia in 1815. Savoy became a distinct county in 1016; a duchy in 1416; and a kingdom, from the peace of Utrecht in 1713; the island of Sardinia being annexed to it in 1720, under Amadeus II. It was invaded by the French in 1798; but reinstated as a kingdom, under the name of Sardinia, in 1815, by the Congress of Vienna.

The kingdom of the Two Sicilies, (Naples and Sicily), was founded by Norman adventurers; and became a duchy under Robert Guiscard, in 1060; and a kingdom under Roger II., in 1130. When his family became extinct, in 1189, the kingdom fell to Henry VI. of Germany, and to his descendants, till it was granted, in 1254, by the pope, to Charles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX. of France. Sicily revolted from his reign, and by the massacre of the Sicilian vespers, in 1282, the French were extirpated from Palermo. The French were expelled from Naples in 1458, by Alphonso V. (Alfonso) of Arragon; after which Naples was connected successively with Spain and Austria, till it was conferred on Ferdinand of Spain, in 1759. Since that time, it has remained a distinct kingdom.

Tuscany, became a grand-duchy in 1569, under Cosmo de' Medici. On the failure of his line, in 1737, it passed to Francis, duke of Lorraine; and from him to the house of Austria, to which it still remains subject; though entirely distinct from the Austrian empire. Of the other Italian duchies we have no room here to speak.

§ 2. The History of Spain, commences with its settlement by the Phoenicians; who built Cadiz, it is said, 900 B. C. It was invaded by the Carthaginians, about 500 B. C.; and partially held by them till the end of the second Punic war, 201 B. C.; when it was ceded to the Romans; though not completely subdued by the latter, till the time of Augustus. On the decline of the Roman power, Spain was invaded, and mostly subdued, by the Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, A. D. 406; but about 419, the Visigoths, under Wallia, became its masters, and drove the Vandals into Africa. The Catholic religion was introduced into Spain, in 586, under Reccared I. In 712, this country was invaded by the Moors; and Don Roderick, who had usurped the throne, was defeated at Xeres, by Tarik, sent from Barbary; who thus subjected Spain to the caliphate of Bagdad. In 756, Abdalrahman rendered Spain independent; and established the caliphate of Cordova, the seat of Moorish learning. This caliphate became divided, about 1038, among several Moorish princes.

Meanwhile, as early as 718, Pelagius the Goth, retiring to the mountains of Asturias, founded the kingdom of Leon; which became united with Castile, in 1037, under Ferdinand I. Barcelona became a distinct county in 801; and was united with Arragon, in 1162, under Raymond, surnamed Alphonso II. By these Christian powers the Moors were gradually driven back; and by the battle of Tolosa, in 1220, they lost all Spain except Granada in the south. After the marriage of Ferdinand V. of Arragon, styled the Catholic, with Isabella of Castile, in 1479, their forces were united against the Moors; and the conquest of Granada was completed in 1492. This success induced Isabella to patronize Columbus; while Ferdinand's fame was tarnished by the introduction of the Inquisition. Charles I.

of Spain, the grandson of Isabella, came to the throne in 1516, and soon after became emperor of Germany, under the title of Charles V.; as heir to his father, Philip, archduke of Austria. The rivalry of Francis I. of France, led to a war, in which Francis was taken prisoner, and confined till the peace of Madrid, in 1526; which left Charles the most powerful monarch of Europe, with the wealth of America at his command.

Charles resigned the Spanish crown, in 1556, to his son Philip II.; whose intolerance and religious wars, and especially the armada sent against England, but destroyed in 1588, exhausted his resources, and weakened the nation. The expulsion of the Moors, by Philip III., in 1609, and the loss of Portugal during the reign of Philip IV., accelerated this decline. Charles II. appointed Philip of Anjou to be his successor: and this led to the war of the Spanish Succession, in which France and Spain supported Philip; but England and Holland aided Germany, in favor of the emperor Leopold. This war began in 1701, and ended with the peace of Utrecht, in 1713; by which Philip retained the crown, under the title of Philip V.; but lost many of its foreign possessions. Under Charles III., Spain united with France, in aiding the United States of America to secure. their independence; and in 1782, those powers attempted, but in vain, to take Gibraltar from the English. The difficulties between Charles IV. and his son Ferdinand VII., invited the interposition of Napoleon; who in 1808, placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne. In the wars which followed, the French were expelled, and Ferdinand restored, in 1814; by the aid of the English. Isabella II., the daughter of Ferdinand, is now the queen and sole monarch of Spain.

The history of Portugal, belongs to that of Spain, till Henry of Burgundy, having assisted Alphonso VI. of Castile and Leon against the Moors, was appointed by him, A. D. 1094, to be governor of the provinces around Oporto; and Alphonso I., the son of Henry, having defeated the Moors at Ourique, was at once saluted king of Portugal, in 1139. In 1383, the direct line of Burgundy having become extinct, the crown was conferred on John I. of the same family. His son, Henry, the Infante, surnamed the Navigator, set on foot those enterprizes which opened the way to the Indies, in the reign of John II. In 1580, the crown becoming vacant, was seized by Philip II. of Spain; and held by that power till 1640, when the Portuguese placed John of Braganza, of the old royal family, upon the throne. In the reign of Joseph I. the Jesuits were banished from Portugal, in 1759; and reforms were made in the government. After the French Revolution of 1789, Portugal became involved in the wars with France; and in 1807, the regent John VI. sailed to Brazil, leaving the country in the hands of the French; but it was restored to him by the peace of Paris, in 1814. In 1821, John returned to Portugal, leaving his son Don Pedro, to govern Brazil, which became independent in 1825. Maria II. (Donna Maria), the daughter of Pedro, now occupies the throne of Portugal.

§ 3. The History of France, commences with that of the Gauls, its ancient inhabitants; whose subjugation to the Roman empire was

completed by Julius Cæsar, in the year 50 B. C. The ancient Cherusci, afterwards styled Franks, or freemen, began to migrate from Germany to France as early as A. D. 264; and at length, having defeated the Romans, at Soissons, in 486, they founded the Frankish empire, including France and Germany, under Clovis, grandson of Merovæus, and head of the Merovingian dynasty. His successors were mostly weak monarchs; and after the death of Dagobert II., in 638, the mayors of the palace became possessed of the principal power. Their office became hereditary, in the family of Pepin Heristel: whose son Charles defeated the Saracens from Spain, near Tours, in 732, and hence was surnamed Martel, or the Hammer. His son, Pepin the Short, (le Bref), was proclaimed king. of France in 751; with whom commenced the second or Carlovingian dynasty. Charles, the son of Pepin, having subdued the Lombards, and become monarch of Italy, Germany, and France, was crowned Emperor of the West, by Pope Leo III., in 800; taking thenceforward the name of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great.

The grandsons of Charlemagne, sons of Louis Debonnaire, contended for the crown before their father's death; and fought with each other the battle of Fontenoy; after which, by the treaty of Verdun, in 843, Italy was assigned to Lothaire; Germany, to Louis; and France, to Charles the Bald. This dynasty continued till the death of Louis V., in 987; when Hugh Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, founded the third, or Capetian dynasty. From this time, the royal power, favored by the clergy and the common people, began to predominate over that of the nobles; thus undermining the Feudal system. In 1087, France, under Philip I., was invaded by William the Conqueror, of England; but without success. VII. took part in the second Crusade, in 1147; Philip II. (Augustus), joined in the third, in 1188; and Louis IX. (St. Lewis), led the fifth and last Crusade, in 1248, but without success. (See p. 219). The kingdom of France was, for a long time, extremely limited; Flanders, Champagne, Burgundy, and several other states being independent; while a large part of northern and western France belonged to England.

Louis

In 1328, Philip VI., of the house of Valois, a branch of the Capetian race, ascended the throne. The pretensions of Edward III. of England, to the French crown, led to a war, in which the English were victorious at Cressy, in 1347; and they took Calais soon after. John II., the successor of Philip, was defeated at Poictiers, in 1356; and carried a prisoner to London. Charles V., the Wise, was more successful; but in the next reign, the French were again defeated at Agincourt, (or Azincourt), in 1415. Charles VII., aided by Joan of Arc, raised the siege of Orleans in 1429; and regained all of France, which had been held by the English, except Calais. Louis XII., of Orleans, was succeeded in 1515, by Francis I., of Angoulême; who contested the crown of Germany, in a war with Charles V. (See p. 222). This war, after the release of Francis, was renewed, till the peace of Crespi, in 1544. The reign of Charles IX., was stained by internal religious wars, and by the massacre of