§ 4. The principal Sects among the later Jews, were the Pharisees, who attached great importance to the ceremonies of religion, neglecting its weightier matters; and the Sadducees, who were generally incredulous, denying the resurrection, and the immortality of the soul. The Scribes, mentioned in the gospels, were professed doctors of the law, which they expounded to the people. The Essenes, were a small and ancient sect, noted for their austerity. The Karaites, (or Caraites), are a modern sect, chiefly in the east, who attach no authority to the Talmud; while the Rabbinists, chiefly in Europe, regard it as nearly of equal weight with their Scriptures.

The Talmud consists of two parts, the Mishna, (or Mischna), explaining their laws and customs; and the Gemara, which is a commentary on the Mishna. The Mishna was collected by the Rabbi Jehudah, or Juda Hakkadosh, A. D. 200; and is attributed by the Jews to Moses, as its principal author. The Mishna with a Gemara, compiled by Rabbi Eliezer, about the sixth century, forms the Jerusalem Talmud; and with another Gemara, compiled by Chaldean Jews, it forms the Babylonian Talmud, most frequently referred to. The Targums, are Jewish paraphrases of their Scriptures, written in the Chaldee tongue. That of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, on the Prophets, was made about 30 B. C.; and that of Onkelos, on the Law, was made at the time, nearly, of the Christian Era. The Targum of Jerusalem, is on the Pentateuch; and that of Joseph the Blind, is on the Hagiographa. The Cabala, (or Cabbala), embracing the cabalistic writings of the Jews, consists of mystical interpretations of the Scriptures, and metaphysical speculations, handed down by tradition, and regarded by them as the sublimest of sciences. The modern Jewish creed, drawn up by the Rabbi Maimonides, in the eleventh century, contains nothing very peculiar, and need not here be repeated.

CHAPTER IV.

CHRISTIANITY.

In the branch of Christianity, we include the whole study of the Christian Religion; its Origin and History; its Scriptures and Evidences; and the History and Doctrines of the different Sects which profess to adopt it. The name is derived from that of its divine author and founder: the word CHRIST, from the Greek, xpiotos, like the Hebrew word MESSIAH, signifying one who has been anointed; as were the Jewish prophets, priests, and kings; whose functions were all united in the incarnate Son of God. We regard the pure Jewish religion as a part of the Christian; which properly embraces the whole Scheme of Salvation, shadowed forth by the sacrifices, foretold by the prophets, and realized by the advent and ministry of Jesus Christ, our Lord and Saviour. To this scheme alone we apply what has already been said, of the incomparable importance of practical religion. (p. 127.) The term Theology, is frequently restricted to

Christian Theology, or the study of Christianity; otherwise called the study of Divinity. Various subdivisions of this study have been proposed; but we proceed here to treat of it in three parts, under the titles of Ecclesiastical History; Biblical Divinity; and Sectarian Polity.

PART I.

Ecclesiastical History.

Under the head of Ecclesiastical History, we shall here treat of the origin and early progress of Christianity; considered, so far as it may be, independently of the particular sects, into which the Christian world is now divided. The name is derived from the Greek, xxλysia, church; this name properly signifying the whole body of Christians of all ages and nations; though it is also applied to any particular Christian sect, or society. The present topic presupposes a general knowledge of Civil History and Archæology, both ancient and modern; with which it is so closely connected, that the study of each, throws light upon that of the other. After thus glancing over the early History of Christianity, we shall be the better prepared to appreciate the evidences on which it rests. The later Ecclesiastical History, referring chiefly to the various Christian sects which have arisen in modern times, will be reserved for the third part of the present chapter, that entitled Sectarian Polity.

§ 1. Our Saviour was born, four years before the Christian Era, as generally received, (or 4 B. C.), in Bethlehem of Judea, which was then under the Roman power. At twelve years of age, (A. D. 8), he disputed with the Jewish Doctors, in the temple; and at the age of nearly thirty-one, (A. D. 27), he was baptized by John the Baptist; soon after which he chose the twelve apostles, and commenced his public ministry. Three and a half years after this, A. D. 31, he was crucified, rose again from the dead, and reascended into heaven, in the presence of many disciples. The first Christian Church, was formed, immediately after this event, at Jerusalem; and James the Less, or the Just, who was the son of Alpheus, (that is Cleophas), and who was called the brother, though really the cousin of our Lord, was placed over it, as its presbyter or bishop. He was the writer of the epistle which bears his name. He suffered martyrdom, A. D. 62; when his brother Simeon succeeded him. The second church appears to have been formed at Antioch, in Syria, by those who fled thither after Stephen's martyrdom; and there, about A. D. 40, the disciples were first called Christians. On the approach of Titus, to besiege Jerusalem, the Christians, with Peter and John, warned by our Saviour's prophecy, withdrew in safety, A. D. 70, to Pella, beyond the river Jordan.

Of the Twelve Apostles, Simon Peter preached the gospel in Asia Minor, and, according to Eusebius, at Rome also; where he was crucified, A. D. 67. He was regarded as the first bishop of Rome; Linus being his successor. Andrew, his brother, is said to have preached in Greece, and been crucified at Patras in Achaia, A. D. 83. James, called the Greater, the son of Zebedee, was put

to death by Herod, at Jerusalem, A. D. 44; and John, his brother, the Evangelist and Divine, preached in Asia Minor, until he was banished to Patmos; but returned, and died at Ephesus, A. D. 100. Philip of Bethsaida, died at Hierapolis, in Phrygia; and Bartholomew, it is said, after preaching in Arabia, Armenia, and India, died in Persia. Thomas, called Didymus, preached, it is stated, in Parthia, and probably died in India: and Matthew, called Levi, the publican or tax-gatherer, and the Evangelist, is said to have preached and suffered martyrdom in Persia. Of James the Less, we have already spoken, in the preceding paragraph; and Lebbeus, his brother, surnamed Thaddeus, called also Judas or Jude, preached and died, it is said, in Syria; after writing the epistle which bears his name. Simon the Canaanite, (or Canaite), called Zelotes, preached and probably died in Africa; and Judas Iscariot, the betrayer, committed suicide,

A. D. 31.

Paul, originally named Saul, and likewise called an apostle, preached the gospel in all the civilized world of that age; then suffered martyrdom at Rome, A. D. 67. Mark, the Evangelist, preached, at Alexandria, in Egypt, and, it is said, died there, A. D. 62. He is regarded as the first bishop of Alexandria; Annianus being his successor. Luke, the remaining Evangelist, probably the same person as Lucius of Cyrene, was long the companion of Paul, but died in Achaia. Timothy, is said to have suffered martyrdom at Ephesus, some years after the death of Paul; and Titus, it is believed, died in Crete, at an advanced age. Thus, we perceive that the labors of the apostles and evangelists, were the means of introducing Christianity, throughout the then civilized world, within the first century after the Christian era. The Gauls also received the gospel, either from the apostles themselves, or from their immediate successors; and it was preached, during the second century, to the Spaniards, Germans, and Britons. To Eusebius we are indebted for much information concerning the early churches, and their bishops, down to the Council of Nice; but the mention of the Christian Fathers, must here be postponed to the head of Patristic Theology.

§ 2. Historians enumerate ten Persecutions, which the Church underwent, before Christianity became the established religion of the Roman Empire. They were, 1. Under the emperor Nero, A. D. 64, who after setting fire to Rome, charged the same upon the Christians; 2. Under Domitian, A. D. 95, who suspected the Christians of aiming at a new monarchy; 3. Under Trajan, A. D. 100-105, in behalf of the Pagan religion; 4. Under Aurelius Antoninus, about 177, most violently waged in Gaul (or France); 5. Under Septimius Severus, 192-202; 6. Under Maximinius, 235; 7. Under Decius, 249-50, which was general and extremely violent; 8. Under Valerian, in 257; 9. Under Aurelian, in 274; and 10. Under Diocletian, A. D. 303. Of the heresies of the Gnostics, Ebionites, Nicolaitans, and numerous other sects of the early times, we have no room here to speak.

Christianity was first completely tolerated by the emperor Constantine, A. D. 313; and thenceforward became the favored religion of the Roman Empire. No sooner was the Church thus freed from

pagan persecution, than it was agitated by the doctrines of Arius of Alexandria; who maintained that Christ was a created being, entirely distinct from the Father, who alone was truly God. On this account, Constantine assembled the General Council of Nice, which met in 325 at Nice, (east of Constantinople), and almost unanimously declared that Christ, the Son, was coeternal and consubstantial with the Father, and with Him and the Holy Ghost to be worshipped as the one and only true God. To enforce this doctrine, the creed was adopted, which, in a modified form, is still used as the Nicene Creed. Arius was banished, but afterwards recalled; and notwithstanding this decision, Arianism afterwards prevailed for some time in the East.

To oppose the heresies of Arius, Sabellius, and others, a second General Council was held at Constantinople, A. D. 381. The sect of the Pelagians next arose, founded by Pelagius, a Welch monk, who went to Rome, and in 410 to Africa; maintaining that Adam's descendants are not affected by his sin, and that salvation may be merited by our own good works. His tenets were refuted by Augustin, bishop of Hippo, and condemned by the General Council of Ephesus, in 431. At this Council, Nestorius was also condemned, for refusing to call Mary the mother of God, and for maintaining the existence not only of two natures, but also of two persons in Jesus Christ. From him are named the Nestorian or Syrian Christians, in the East, called also Christians of St. Thomas. There were other Councils held in the East, at Chalcedon, in 451; at Constantinople, in 553; at Constantinople, in 680; at Nice, in 787; and at Constantinople, in 869; making in.all eight Ecumenical or general councils, called by the Byzantine or Greek emperors.

§ 3. The bishops of Jerusalem, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople and Rome, had at an early period taken precedence over the others; and they received, about A. D. 400, the title of patriarchs 3 which the Eastern metropolitan bishops still retain. The name of pope, (or papas), from the Greek, naяñas, father, was common, in the third century, to all the bishops; and is still given to the Greek priests in Russia. Though applied to the bishop of Rome, it was not monopolized by him, till the time of Gregory VII., in 1073. The bishop or pope of Rome, at length claimed, as the successor of St. Peter, the primacy over all the others; which was confirmed by the provincial synod at Sardica, in 344; as also by the Council of Constantinople, in 381, which made the bishop of Constantinople second in rank; and again, by the western emperor Valentinian III., in 445. The General Council of Chalcedon, in 451, conceded to the Roman bishop a precedence in rank, but refused to admit that he was vested with any superior authority. At length, disagreements arose, which led Pop Felix II., A. D. 484, to excommunicate the patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria; and thus the Eastern or Greek Church was separated from the Western or Roman: though both assumed the title of Catholic or universal. They were afterwards united, at intervals, till the downfall of the Byzantine empire; but never in a cordial, intimate manner.

The farther progress of the Roman papal power, we must reserve,

to sketch in the department of Chronography. The monastic system, under which monks and nuns secluded themselves, for professed lives of devotion, was introduced into the Church by Antony, in Egypt, about 305; and extended by Pachomius, his disciple. It soon spread through all the Christian world; and, in connection with papal celibacy, has been a fertile source of crime and degradation. The worship of images, commenced in the sixth century, in the East; and, though condemned at Constantinople in 754, it afterwards prevailed, both in the Greek and Roman churches. Meanwhile, the gospel was further preached, in France by St. Denis or Dionysius, about A. D. 290; in Ireland, by St. Patrick, who died there about 493; in England by St. Augustin,* the monk, who died about 608; in Germany, by St. Boniface, or Winfrid, who died in 755; in Denmark, by Ansgarius, who died in 865; in Sweden, by Sigfrid; in Prussia, by Adalbert of Prague; and in Northern Sclavonia, by Otho, in 1124. The Roman church was also extended into Spain in 586; and into Poland, about 964. Russia was united to the Greek church, in 988.

Of modern Missions, and their vast importance, we have no room here to speak; and the history of the Reformation, we must defer to the third part of the present branch; that on Sectarian Polity.

PART II.

Biblical Divinity.

UNDER the head of Biblical Divinity, we include the immediate study of the Bible, and of those works which are most serviceable in defending and explaining it. These studies we regard as preeminently important, in the whole wide range of human knowledge; and hence we recognize the necessity, that men duly qualified, by talents, learning, and piety, should be relieved from secular pursuits, and devoted to the especial investigation, and illustration of the numerous topics herein comprehended. Among the works which are deemed most valuable, as aiding to defend and explain the Scriptures, we may mention the writings of the early Fathers, in connection with the more recent treatises on Natural Theology, and the Evidences of Christianity. These studies, together with Biblical Criticism, and Hermeneutics, will form the subjects of the present division of Christianity.

§1. Biblical Criticism, comprehends an investigation of the origin, and continued preservation of the sacred books; and of their exact signification or interpretation. These sacred books, collectively, we call the Bible; from the Greek, ßß20s, a book; it being so called

by way of eminence. The Bible is generally recognized, by all Christian sects, as a Revelation from the Deity, and therefore of Divine authority. It consists of the Old and the New Testament ; the former of which foretels, and the latter fully describes the Advent or coming of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, to provide the means of salvation for fallen and sinful man. With this great object, it treats of the creation of the world, and of mankind; the apostacy, or fall, * Augustin was not the first propagator of Christianity in England: and there is some ground for the opinion, that St. Paul himself preached there and in Germany.