the feelings are interested without being agitated to a degree inconsistent with pleasure. If then we consider history only as a source of elegant amusement, it is an object of no inconsiderable importance, in a course of liberal education. But this is in fact the lowest commendation to which history is entitled. It is eminently productive of signal utility. The poet has justly remarked that," the proper study of mankind is man;" and it is the office of history to trace the progress of man from the savage state, and through the intermediate degrees of civilization, to the nearest approach to perfection of which social institutions are capable. It falls 'within its province to note the effects of laws and political regulations, and to record the wondrous revolutions which have been produced in states by external violence, and the no less astonishing changes which have been occasioned by the gradual corruption of ancient systems of government. The record of past transactions, when diligently and minutely examined, will present to the politician matter of warning and matter of instruction. It will point out the sources of the errors of former days, and will also lead him to a discernment of the means which have crowned with success such plans as have been productive of benefit to the public. Knowledge which it thus gained is obtained at the cheapest possible price. Happy are the directors of political affairs, who learn in the philosophy of history, those lessons which their predecessors have learnt by the process of painful experience. It has been well observed by Voltaire, that the history of the sanguinary Christiern will deter those whose influence may happen to sway the destiny of nations, from investing a tyrant with absolute power; and that the disaster of Charles XII. before Pultowa affords a lesson of admonition to a general not to penetrate without provision into a country like the Ukraine; whilst the powerful and popular administration of Elizabeth of England, demonstrates the mighty effects of extended commerce and prudent œconomy. In a political point of view the general influence of historical knowledge is, indeed, of the highest importance, it tends to prevent the recurrence, and to diminish the remaining influence of superstition and religions persecution, and of the long train of calamities with which those direst enemies of human happiness are accompanied. For who can read the memorials of the papal usurpations in the dark ages, and of the melancholy consequences by which they were followed, without imbibing a spirit of tolerance, and a determined disposition to discountenance any claims which may revive the unjust assumptions of inordinate spiritual power. In short, history, whilst it details the miseries and misfortunes which have upon various occasions befallen civilized man, instructs him how those miseries and misfortunes may hereafter be avoided. In a moral point of view history is extremely useful, as it points out the issues of things, and exhibits as its general result, the reprobation consequent upon vice, and the glory which awaits virtue. In his days of nature, the oppressor may be applauded by the venal, whilst he lords it over his fellow men, and the wanton destroyer of the human race may be hailed as a hero by the obsequious or mistaken crowd. But when his dust is mingled with that of the victims of his cruelty and ambition, history summons him to her tribunal: she scrutinizes his deeds with impartial strictness, and passes sentence upon him according to his deserts. The prejudices and errors of time present will hereafter be done away and corrected by history, which redresses the wrongs of the injured, and treats with just contempt the insolent assumption of the undeserving. Thus, by the record of crimes no less than by the display of illustrious examples of virtue, does history inculcate good principles, and enforce upon the reflecting mind a belief in a superintending providence. The early annals of all countries are considerably debased by an intermixture of fables. In fact the first historians were universally poets, whose metaphors, amplifications, and allegories necessarily observed facts, or heightened them beyond the standard of probability. To explain their legends is the province of the mythologist, whose labours, however curious and interesting to those who have time and inclination for such pursuits, afford very little assistance to the historian. But, the mythologic age, being thus consigned to the examination of those whom they may concern, however rude may be the style of ancient chronicles, or however simple and puerile the observations and reflections with which they may be inter. spersed, he who wishes to imbibe the true spirit of history will diligently peruse them, when they become the repositories of facts. Such documents alone will give him an idea of the genius of the times concerning which they treat. He who wishes to become acquainted with the principles and manners which predominated in France in the reign of St. Louis or of John, will read the lively and simple, but minutely particular narratives of Joinville and of Froissart, rather than the dull details of a Daniel, or the hasty and imperfect sketch of a Millot. In all cases, indeed, he who wishes to see past events in their true light will refer as much as possible to original authorities. The farther the stream of history flows from its source, the more it is polluted by foreign mixtures. And besides this, how ever skilful, or however faithful, a compiler may be, his particular views lead him to pass unnoticed a variety of facts which are in themselves valuable, and indeed necessary to the perfect understanding of the real nature and bearings of events. This maxim of having recourse to authentic documents will furnish a canon for the most profitable mode of studying an cient history. It will instruct the student to pass lightly over those periods of the Greek and Roman annals, the transactions of which were handed down by tradition to authors, who, instead of scrutinizing their credibility, have amplified and embellished them by the charms of style; and to direct his attention to the records which have been written by those who lived at the time when the actions which they commemorate took place, and more especially to the memoirs of illustrious warriors and statesmen who have left behind them the detail of transactions in which they have been personally concerned. Guided by this principle, he will not dwell upon the marvellous tales of an Herodotus or a Quintus Curtius; but he will study with diligence the narratives of a Thucydides or a Xenophon, of a Sallust, a Cicero, a Cæsar, or a Tacitus; and whilst the legend of Curtius, as recorded by Livy, only demonstrates to him the posthumous glory which, in the happier times of the Roman republic, awaited him who was ready to sacrifice his life for the good of his country, he will peruse, with more interest, the later periods of that writer's history, in which he treats of events which happened nearer to his own time, and the genuine records of which were, in all probability, furnished to him by the public offices of the state. In regard to the earlier periods of modern history, authentic documents are scanty and obscure, and the investigator of the truth of facts is frequently obliged, as it were, to proceed with cautious steps through a dark and doubtful way; but, in process of time, they multiply to such an extent, that the student is embarrassed by their number. The archives of the different states of Europe, contain vast masses of materials, which occasional liberality has opened to the curious enquirer. On the important topic of ecclesiastical proceedings, the printed reports of the decrees of councils and synods throw the most satisfactory light. Voluminous collections of treatises, which have been compiled for the benefit of after times, open the policy of different states and empires; and in various cases, those documents are themselves illustrated by the comments and memoirs of the negociators by whom they were discussed and finally arranged. The confidential correspondence which took place between scholars, at the revival of letters, frequently contains political details which are highly instructive and interesting. In later days, the publication of the various memoirs and state-papers of ministers, to whom the conduct of the affairs of nations has been entrusted, reveal all the springs of their policy, and enable the reader of research to follow them through all the windings of the labyrinth of intrigue. The acts of the British parliament, in themselves, contain a record of the political changes which have taken place in this country, of our progress in commerce, of the gradual amelioration of our constitution, amidst the struggles of party and the contentions of faction. The recorded proceedings of our courts of law, also supply the means of judging of the public conduct of our statesmen. It may be with truth asserted, that the perusal of the state trials can alone give an adequate idea of the horrible crimes which, under the colour of justice, were perpetrated by the different parties which divided this kingdom in the reign of Charles II. In short, there hardly exists in any country a public office, or a private collection of papers, which does not contain documents that are calcu lated to throw light upon history. The student who wishes to pursue his historical enquiries with becoming accuracy, must make himself master of the details of geography and of the principles of statistical calculations, must moreover be versed in all the minutia of chronological researches. In the settling of dates, he will at once evince las labour and his ingenuity. For the correct arrangement of the order of events, he will not shrink from the task of poring over pedigrees, or examining coins. It has been well observed, by the profound Pinkerton, that by the study of medals alone, Vailiant "was enabled to ascertain, in a very great degree, the chronology of three important kingdoms of the ancient world, namely, those of Egypt, of Syria, and of Parthia." Such are the principal sources from which may be derived a knowledge of historic truth. To enumerate all the materials of history would be an almost endless task; but in order to make due profit of these materials, wherever they may occur, the student ought to be animated by the spirit of philosophical enquiry. "Incredulity," says Aristotle, "is the foundation of all wisdom." Without the gift of discrimination the historian degenerates into a chronicler of fables; without the faculty of deducing useful consequences, he is degraded into a registrar of barren facts. To distinguish truth from falshood in the obscure records of former times, or amidst the misrepresentations of factious malignity in more modern periods, requires no small degree of sagacity. Voltaire has justly observed, that in order to be qualified to seize the proper objects of history, a man must not be acquainted with books alone. He must have a minute knowledge of the human heart, and be qualified to analyze the prejudices and the passions of men. He will give due weight to circumstances and situations. He will not estimate the character of a despot by the panegyric of a courtier; nor will he pass sentence of condemnation on a prince who has resisted ecclesiastical claims and restrained the power of the clergy, because he is vilified in the chronicles of a monk. The enlightened student of history will not direct his chief attention to the frivolons anecdotes of a court, but to the circumstances which stamp the character and decide the destiny of a nation. He will enquire what has been its radical vice or its predominant virtue; why it has been powerful or weak by sea or land; what has been the improvement or the deterioration of its trade and commerce; wherein consist the excellencies and the defects of its civil and municipal institutions; what have been the constitution, and what the influence of its ecclesiastical establishments. He will trace the introduction of arts and manufactures, and observe the changes which have taken place in manners and in laws. Such are the materials and such the objects of history, than which next to our relation to the deity, no more important topic of enquiry can be presented to the human in tellect. HITCH, in the sea language, is to catch hold of any thing with a hook or rope, and by this means to hold it fast: thus when a boat is to be hoisted in, the sailors say, "Hitch the tackles into the ring-bolts of the boat;" and when they are about to weigh anchor, "Hitch the fish-hook to the fluke of the anchor." HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle for bees. See BEE. HOD, an instrument used to carry bricks and mortar in, up ladders, &c. to build or repair houses, &c. with. HODMAN, an appellation given to a young student admitted into Christ's College in Oxford, from Westminster school. HOE, in country affairs, a tool made like a cooper's adze, to cut upwards in gardens, fields, &c. This tool is commonly called the hand hoe. HOFFMANNIA, in botany, so named in memory of Maurice Hoffinan, a genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Stellatæ. Rubiacea,Jussieu. Essential character: calyx four-toothed; corolla salver-shaped, four-parted; filaments none; berry two-celled, many-seeded. There is only one species, viz. H. pedunculata, a native of Jamaica. HOG. See Sus. HOG, hedge. See ERINACEUS. HOKE day, the Tuesday after Easter week, which was the day on which the English conquered and expelled the Danes; this was therefore kept as a day of rejoic ing, and a duty, called Hoke Tuesday money, was paid to the landlord, for giving his tenants and bondmen leave to celebrate it. HOLCUS, in botany, a genus of the Polygamia Monoecia class and order. Natural order of Gramina or Grasses. Essential character: hermaphrodite, calyx glume, one or two-flowered; corolla glume, awned; stamina three; styles two; seed one: male, calyx glume, two-valved; corolla none; stamina three. There are fifteen species. HOLD, that part of a ship which lies between the keelson and the lower deck; in which, divided by bulk heads, are the steward's-room, powder-room, bread-room, and the boatswain's and carpenter's storerooms. In a merchantman, all the goods and lading in general, are stowed in the hold, HOLD fust, a large piece of iron, in the shape of the letter S, fixed into a wall to strengthen it. Also a tool used by joiners, carvers, &c. which goes through their benches to hold fast such work as cannot be finished by its being held in the hand. HOLLAND, in commerce, a fine and close kind of linen, so called from its being first manufactured in Holland. HOLLOA, in sea language, an exclamation of answer to any person who calls to another to ask some question, or to give a particular order: thus, when the master means to give any order to the people in the main-top, he previously calls "Maintop hoay," to which they answer, “Holloa,” to shew that they hear him and are ready. It is also the answer in hailing a ship at a distance. See HAILING. HOLLOW square, in the military art, a body of foot drawn up, with an empty space in the middle for colours, drums, and baggage. HOLLY. See ILEX. HOLOMETER, a mathematical instrument that serves universally for taking all measures, both on the earth and in the heavens. HOLORACEÆ, in botany, the name of the twelfth order in Linnæus's “Fragments of a Natural Method," consisting of pot herbs, or plants used for the table, and entering into the economy of domestic affairs. This order is separated into two divisions. 1. Hermaphrodite plants. 2. Male, female, androgynous, and polygamous plants. This order contains trees, shrubs, and perennial and annual herbs; some of the woody vegetables, as the bay, retain their green leaves during the winter; the roots are long; the stems and young branches are cylindric. In the greatest part of the aquatic plants of this order, the stalks are hollow within; the buds are of a conical form; the leaves are generally simple, alternate, entire, and attached to the branches by a cylindric footstalk, which is sometimes very long, but generally short. HOLOSTEUM, in botany, a genus of the Triandria Trigynia class and order. Natural order of Caryophyllei. Essential character: calyx five-leaved; petals five; capsule one-celled, subcylindrical, opening at top. There are five species. HOLOTHURIA, in natural history, a genus of the Vermes Mollusca class and order. Body detached, cylindrical, thick, naked, and open at the extremity; mouth surrounded by fleshy branched tentacula or feelers. These are all inhabitants of the sea, and expand or contract themselves at pleasure; the anterior aperture serves them both as a mouth and vent, and from the hinder one they reject waters which had been previously drawn in; the tentacula are retractile. There are twenty-three species. H. pentactes, or five-rowed Holothuria, is noticed by Pennant. It has an incurrated cylindric body, marked with longitudinal rows of papillæ; out of the centre of each issue, at pleasure, slender feelers like the horns of snails; the upper extremity retractile; when exerted it assumes a cordated form, surrounded at the apex with eight tentacula, elegantly ramified, of a yellow and silver colour. It is found on the shores near Penzance. H. tremula is a foot long, inhabits the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas; the body is cylindrical when extended, and oblong when contracted; it is various in colour, but generally of a beautiful mixture of red and white; the cylindrical tubes beneath the body act as so many suckers, by which the animal fixes itself firmly to the bottom of the sea. Another curious species noticed by Gmelin is H. denudata, is oblong, with interrupted lateral lines, and without a crest or tail, inhabits the American ocean. It is three or four inches long, with a body slowly tapering at both ends, transparent, of a firm gelatinous consistence and hollow, opening by a small triangular aperture next the crest, and a narrow round one at the other extremity; they have a spiral milky line down the back, under this another larger opaque one, and on each side below these another smaller purple one. They are sometimes found single, and frequently sticking lengthways together. The word holothuria is used by Pliny and Aristotle; but Mr. Pennant supposes they both intended, under this name, to describe those marine bodies now denominated zoophyta. Aristotle, however, seems to have admitted that they possessed animal life, a circumstance that has in modern times been completely ascer tained. HOMALIUM, in botany, a genus of the Polyandria Trigynia class and order. Natoral order of Rosacea, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx six or seven parted; corolla six or seven petalled; stamens twentyone, in three bodies; pericarpium onecelled, many-seeded. There are two species. HOMER, OMER, CORUS, or CHOMER, in Jewish antiquities, a measure containing ten baths, or seventy-five gallons and five pints, as a measure for things liquid; and thirty-two pecks and one pint, as a measure for things dry. The homer was most commonly a measure for things dry, and the greatest that was used among the Jews: it contained, according to the Rabbins, ten ephaps, or thirty fata orseahs. Corus is the most usual term in the historical writers, and homer, omer, or chomer, among the prophets. HOMICIDE, in law, is the killing of a man by a man. Of this there are several species, as homicide by self-defence, homicide by misadventure, justifiable homicide, manslaughter, chance-medley, and murder. Homicide by self-defence, se defendendo, or in a man's own defence, is where one has no other possible means of preserving his life from one who combats with him on a sndden quarrel, and kills the person by whom he is reduced to such inevitable necessity. And not only he who on an assault retreats to a wall, or some such strait, beyond which he can go no farther, before he kills the other, is judged by the law to act upon unavoidable necessity; but also he, who being assaulted in such a manner, and in such a place, that he cannot go back with out manifestly endangering his life, kills the other, without retreating at all. And though a person who retreats from an assault to the wall, should give the other wounds in his retreat, yet if he give him no mortal wound till he get thither, and then kill him, he is guilty of homicide se defendendo only. But if the mortal wound were given first, then it is manslaughter. Homicide by misadventure, is where a man in doing a lawful act, without any intent of hurt, unfortunately chances to kill another; as where a labourer being at work with an hatchet, the head thereof flies off, and kills one who stands by. It seems clear, that neither homicide by misadventure, nor homicide se defendendo, are felonious, because they are not accompanied with a felonious intent, which is necessary in every felony. HOMICIDE, justifiable. To make homicide justifiable, it must be owing to some unavoidable necessity, to which a person who kills another must be reduced, without any manner of fault in himself. And there must be no malice coloured under pretence of necessity; for wherever a person who kills another, acts in truth upon malice, and takes occasion upon the appearance of necessity to execute his own private revenge, he is guilty of murder. But if a woman kill him who assaulteth to ravish her, it is no felony or if a man come to burn my house, and I go out and kill him, it is no felony. So, "if any evil-disposed person, shall attempt feloniously to rob or murder any person in any dwelling-house, or highway, or feloniously attempt to break any dwelling-house in the night-time, and shall happen to be slain in such felonious attempt, the slayer shall be discharged, and shall forfeit no lands nor goods." 24 Henry VIII. c. 5. Justifiable homicide of á public nature, is such as is occasioned by the due execution or advancement of public justice, with regard to which it must be observed, 1. That the judgment, by virtue whereof any person is put to death, must be given by one who has jurisdiction in the cause; for otherwise both judge and officer may be guilty of felony. 2. The execution must be pursuant to, and warranted by the judgment, otherwise it is without authority; and consequently, if a sheriff shall behead a man, when it is no part of the sentence to cut off the head, he is guilty of felony. HOMICIDE, manslaughter, against the life of another, is either with or without malice; that which is without malice is called manslaughter, or sometimes chance-medley, or chaud-medley, by which is understood such killing as happens either on a sudden quarrel, or in the commission of an unlawful act, without any deliberate intention of doing any mischief at all. Hence it follows, that there can be no accessaries to this offence before the fact, because it must be done without premeditation; but there may be accessaries after the fact. The only difference between murder and manslaughter, is, that murder is upon malice aforethought, and manslaughter upon a sudden occasion, as if two meet together, and striving for the wall, the one kills the other, this is manslaughter and felony. And if they had, on that sudden occasion, gone into the field and fought, and the one had killed the other, this had been but manslaughter, and no murder; because all that followed was but a continuance of the first sudden occasion, and the blood was never cooled till the blow was given. Chance, or chaud-medley. Authors of the first authority disagree about the application of this word. By some it is applied to homicide by misadventure, by others to manslaughter. The original meaning of the word seems to favour the former opinion, as |