PROPOSITION XV. THEOREM.

In the same circle, or in equal circles, equal angles having their vertices at the centre, intercept equal arcs on the circumference: and conversely, if the arcs intercepted are equal, the angles contained by the radii will also be equal.

Let C and C be the centres of equal circles, and the angle ACB=DCE.

First. Since the angles ACB, DCE, are equal, they may be placed upon each other; and since their sides are equal, the point A will evidently fall on D, and the point B on E. But, in A that case, the arc AB must also

fall on the arc DE; for if the arcs did not exactly coincide, there would, in the one or the other, be points unequally distant from the centre; which is impossible: hence the arc AB is equal to DE.

B

D

Secondly. If we suppose AB-DE, the angle ACB will be equal to DCE. For, if these angles are not equal, suppose ACB to be the greater, and let ACI be taken equal to DCE. From what has just been shown, we shall have AI-DE: but, by hypothesis, AB is equal to DE; hence AI must be equal to AB, or a part to the whole, which is absurd (Ax. 8.): hence, the angle ACB is equal to DCE.

PROPOSITION XVI. THEOREM.

In the same circle, or in equal circles, if two angles at the centre are to each other in the proportion of two whole numbers, the intercepted arcs will be to each other in the proportion of the same numbers, and we shall have the angle to the angle, as the corresponding arc to the corresponding arc.

Suppose, for example, that the angles ACB, DCE, are to each other as 7 is to 4; or, which is the same thing, suppose that the angle M, which may serve as a common measure, is contained times in the angle ACB, and 4 times in DCE

M

E

The seven partial angles ACm, mCn, nCp, &c., into which ACB is divided, being each equal to any of the four partial angles into which DČE is divided; each of the partial arcs Am, mn, np, &c., will be equal to each of the partial arcs Dr, xy, &c. (Prop. XV.). Therefore the whole arc AB will be to the whole arc DE, as 7 is to 4. But the same reasoning would evidently apply, if in place of 7 and 4 any numbers whatever were employed; hence, if the ratio of the angles ACB, DCE, can be expressed in whole numbers, the arcs AB, DE, will be to each other as the angles ACB, DCE.

Scholium. Conversely, if the arcs, AB, DE, are to each other as two whole numbers, the angles ACB, DCE will be to each other as the same whole numbers, and we shall have ACB: DCE :: AB : DE. For the partial arcs, Am, mn, &c. and Dx, xy, &c., being equal, the partial angles ACm, mCn, &c. and DCx, xCy, &c. will also be equal.

PROPOSITION XVII. THEOREM.

Whatever be the ratio of two angles, they will always be to each other as the arcs intercepted between their sides; the arcs being described from the vertices of the angles as centres with equal radii.

Let ACB be the greater and ACD the less angle.

Let the less angle be placed on the greater. If the proposition is not truc, the angle ACB will be to the angle ACD as the arc AB is to an arc greater or less than AD. Suppose this arc to be greater, and let it be represented by AO; we shall thus have, the angle ACB: angle ACD :: arc AB: arc AO. Next conceive the arc

A

DIOB

C

AB to be divided into equal parts, each of which is less than DO; there will be at least one point of division between D and O; let I be that point; and draw CI. The arcs AB, AI, will be to each other as two whole numbers, and by the preceding theorem, we shall have, the angle ACB: angle ACI :: arc AB arc AI. Comparing these two proportions with each other, we see that the antecedents are the same: hence, the consequents are proportional (Book II. Prop. IV.); and thus we find the angle ACD: angle ACI :: arc AO: arc AI. But the arc AO is greater than the arc AI; hence, if this proportion is true, the angle ACD must be greater than the angle ACI on the contrary, however, it is less; hence the angle ACB cannot be to the angle ACD as the arc AB is to an arc greater than AD.

By a process of reasoning entirely similar, it may be shown that the fourth term of the proportion cannot be less than AD; hence it is AD itself; therefore we have

Angle ACB angle ACD :: arc AB : arc AD.

Cor. Since the angle at the centre of a circle, and the arc intercepted by its sides, have such a connexion, that if the one be augmented or diminished in any ratio, the other will be augmented or diminished in the same ratio, we are authorized to establish the one of those magnitudes as the measure of the other; and we shall henceforth assume the arc AB as the measure of the angle ACB. It is only necessary that, in the comparison of angles with each other, the arcs which serve to measure them, be described with equal radii, as is implied in all the foregoing propositions.

Scholium 1. It appears most natural to measure a quantity by a quantity of the same species; and upon this principle it would be convenient to refer all angles to the right angle; which, being made the unit of measure, an acute angle would be expressed by some number between 0 and 1; an obtuse angle by some number between 1 and 2. This mode of expressing angles would not, however, be the most convenient in practice. It has been found more simple to measure them by arcs of a circle, on account of the facility with which arcs can be made equal to given arcs, and for various other reasons. At all events, if the measurement of angles by arcs of a circle is in any degree indirect, it is still equally easy to obtain the direct and absolute measure by this method; since, on comparing the arc which serves as a measure to any angle, with the fourth part of the circumference, we find the ratio of the given angle to a right angle, which is the absolute

measure.

E*

Scholium 2. All that has been demonstrated in the last three propositions, concerning the comparison of angles with arcs, holds true equally, if applied to the comparison of sectors with arcs; for sectors are not only equal when their angles are so, but are in all respects proportional to their angles; hence, two sectors ACB, ACD, taken in the same circle, or in equal circles, are to each other as the arcs AB, AD, the bases of those sectors. It is hence evident that the arcs of the circle, which serve as a measure of the different angles, are proportional to the different sectors, in the same circle, or in equal circles.

PROPOSITION XVIII. THEOREM.

An inscribed angle is measured by half the arc included between its sides.

Let BAD be an inscribed angle, and let us first suppose that the centre of the circle lies within the angle BAD. Draw the diameter AE, and the radii CB, CD.

E

The angle BCE, being exterior to the triangle ABC, is equal to the sum of the two interior angles CAB, ABC (Book I. B Prop. XXV. Cor. 6.): but the triangle BAC being isosceles, the angle CAB is equal to ABC; hence the angle BCE is double of BAC. Since BCE lies at the centre, it is measured by the arc BE; hence BAC will be measured by the half of BE. For a like reason, the angle CAD will be measured by the half of ED; hence BAC+CAD, or BAD will be measured by half of BE+ED, or of BED.

Suppose, in the second place, that the centre C lies without the angle BAD. Then drawing the diameter AE, the angle BAE will be measured by the half of BE; the angle DAE by the half of DE: hence their difference BAD will be measured by the half of BE minus the half of ED, or by the B half of BD.

Hence every inscribed angle is measured by half of the arc included between its sides.

C

E

Cor. 1. All the angles BAC, BDC, BEC, inscribed in the same segment are equal; because they are all measured by the half of the same arc BOC.

B

Cor. 2. Every angle BAD, inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle; because it is measured by half the semicircumference BOD, that is, by the fourth part of the whole circumference.

Cor. 3. Every angle BAC, inscribed in a segment greater than a semicircle, is an acute angle; for it is measured by half of the arc BOC, less than a semicircumference.

And every angle BOC, inscribed in a segment less than a semicircle, is an obtuse angle; for it is measured by half of the arc B BAC, greater than a semicircumference.

A

PROPOSITION XIX. THEOREM.

A

C

Cor. 4. The opposite angles A and C, of an inscribed quadrilateral ABCD, are together equal to two right angles: for the angle BAD is measured by half the arc BCD, the angle BCD is measured by half the arc BAD; hence the two angles BAD, BCD, ta- D ken together, are measured by the half of the circumference; hence their sum is equal to two right angles.

The angle formed by two chords, which intersect each other, is measured by half the sum of the arcs included between its sides