TECHNIQUES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 53 236. New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1926, p. 136. The author begins his conclusions with the following statement: "At the outset it should be clearly understood that such conclusions as are reached as a result of this investigation apply only to the five schools included in the study and not to small high schools in general.” In this way the author prevents generalization on the basis of insufficient data. COY, GENEVIEVE L. "The Interests, Abilities, and Achievements of a Special Class for Gifted Children," Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 131. New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1923, p. 187. Conclusions are given at the end of each chapter. An explicit recognition of defects in the data is given in the following statement: "But the number of children enrolled in this class was too few to make it possible to generalize from these conclusions, and to say, 'These statements will hold for all children of similar intelligence, under similar conditions.' Our results show a tendency only." ALDERMAN, GROVER H. "Improving Comprehension Ability in Silent Reading," Journal of Educational Research, 13:11-21, January, 1926. The author gives the reader the following caution in regard to generalizing on the basis of his study. "The conclusions apply in strictness only to teaching done under similar circumstances." C. Application of conclusions. 1. Suggestions for application to practice. IRION, T. W. H. "Comprehension Difficulties of Ninth Grade Students in the Study of Literature," Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 189. New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1925, p. 73-74. Under the caption, "Pedagogic Implications," the reader is given advice concerning the application of conclusions. The following statements are made: "The study which we have reported finds its chief justification in the pedagogic applications which follow easily from the obtained results. Therefore, in concluding, it is essential that we summarize the more obvious pedagogic implications of our findings, keeping in mind the restrictions and limitations imposed by the conditions circumscribing our investi STEELE, ROBERT M. "A Study of Teacher Training in Vermont," Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 243. New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1926. 109 p. The last chapter of the monograph is devoted to summary, conclusions, and recommendations. The summary consists of four paragraphs in which are traced the contents of the preceding four chapters. Thirteen separate conclusions are then given, and are followed by several pages of recommendations. The reason for giving these recommendations is stated: "From the facts set forth in this study, it is clear that to regain its earlier place of leadership among the states in education and to provide the children of the commonwealth with teachers comparable in training to those in other New England states, Vermont must take immediate steps to place its teacher-training institutions upon a higher level of efficiency. To this end the following recommendations are made:". 2. Suggestion of problems for further investigation. IRION, T. W. H. "Comprehension Difficulties of Ninth Grade Students in the Study of Literature," Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 189. New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1925, p. 72-73. The investigation led to the discovery of certain problems in need of solution. Six of the most important of these problems are given. The first of them grows directly out of one of the conclusions. ULLRICH, OSCAR A. "The Effect of Required Themes on The reader is given the following statement in the conclusions which suggests further investigation: "The results of this study point to a question that seems to lie deeper than the one here investigated, that is the question of motivation of theme work-a problem which seems to demand investigation." RUFI, JOHN. "The Small High School," Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 236. New York: Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1926, p. 141. The author does not feel justified in making any generalizations on the basis of his data other than: "It is not too much to say that this study gives additional reasons for seriously questioning the value and efficiency of the small high school in general. It clearly shows the need for further study and educational investigation of this very important part of our educational system." TECHNIQUES OF EDUCATIONAL Research BIBLIOGRAPHY 55 COURTIS, S. A. "The Validation of Statistical Procedure," Journal of Educational Research, 12:31-40, June, 1925. The appropriateness of the statistical procedure to the situation bears a close relationship to the validity of conclusions drawn from the data. "When a non-valid statistical method is used, the conclusion reached departs from the truth to the degree to which the method is not valid." The author further states, "It goes without saying that the careful worker who reports selected data will report also the items excluded, the method of selection, and a discussion of the validity of the method." GLICK, H. N. "Effect of Practice on Intelligence Tests," University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 3, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 27. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 23 p. In investigations where use is made of intelligence tests it is well to consider the possibility of practice effect. Conclusions derived from intelligence scores may be erroneous unless such factors are taken into account. MADSEN, I. N. "Intelligence as a Factor in School Progress," School and Society, 15: 283-288, March, 1922. MADSEN, I. N. "Anent Criteria of Educational Research," School and Society, 19: 224-225, February, 1924. The first reference given above is to a study which received somewhat severe criticism from Brooks. The critic states that Madsen has based his conclusions upon data from which relevant items have been excluded. Madsen's reply to his critic is given in the second reference. MONROE, WALTER S. "The Constant and Variable Errors of Educational Measurements," University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 21, No. 10, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 15. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1923. 30 p. In the interpretation of certain statistical data an understanding of the magnitude of the errors is essential. The research worker will find much in this bulletin to aid him in arriving at conclusions which are trustworthy. National Committee on Research in Secondary Education. "An Outline of Methods of Research with Suggestions for High School Principals and Teachers," U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, No. 24, 1926. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1927, p. 7-8. The procedure to be used in arriving at a conclusion is illustrated by the following quotations: “After this careful analysis comes the formation of an hypothesis or tentative conclusion. This involves freeing the mind Brooks, Fowler D. "Criteria of Educational Research," School and Society, 18:724 56 BULLETIN NO. 38 from prejudice, so that, uninfluenced by tradition or personal bias, the tentative conclusion may be the result of the data obtained. No preconceived ideas or prejudices are allowed to have any influence. The habit of suspending judgment until all the evidence is in must be formed Jumping at conclusions from inadequate grounds is not to be toleratedNor is the research worker content with the mere statement of the tentative conclusion. Wherever possible, he attempts to find whether his hypoth esis is correct by the process of validation, of trying it out in as many situations as possible to see if it works." ODELL, CHARLES W. "The Interpretation of the Probable Error and the Coefficient of Correlation," University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 52, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 32. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 49 p. In order to arrive at valid conclusions, a clear understanding of the manner in which probable errors and coefficients of correlation are to be interpreted is necessary. The investigator will find this bulletin of great help in that regard. WHIPPLE, GUY M. "The Improvement of Educational Research," School and Society, 26: 249-259, August, 1927. After a long discussion of the futility and errors of much educational research, the author makes a plea for conclusions which are not wholly apologies. He feels that there is a limit to the number "inconclusive and merely suggestive" researches that should be published. CHAPTER VI REPORTING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH1 Reporting an important phase of educational research. The report of an investigation not only serves to record and communicate the procedure and the results but it also fulfills an important function. in the process of research. In the act of writing, if it is well done, the research worker refines his thinking and the detailed record facilitates the critical testing of the work done. Thus an investigator should not consider that he has completed his task until a complete report has been prepared. If he is interested in communicating his work to others, the report must be well written in order to fulfill that purpose effectively. The communicatory function of a report of educational research. Usually, in preparing a report of a study, a research worker should not confine his purposes to "telling" the reader the answer that he has obtained to the problem studied. Instead, he should try to guide the reader to think about the problem in such a way that at the conclusion of his reading a dependable answer will have been attained. Thus a complete report of an investigation should guide the reader (1) to define the problem clearly so that he will understand just what questions are to be answered and in some cases their relation to other questions, (2) to understand the data introduced, especially to be aware of their limitations, and (3) to test critically the hypothesis which is to be accepted as the answer and as a result to qualify or limit it if the data indicate that this should be done. In case other hypotheses are likely to occur to the reader, the discussion should guide him to an understanding of the reasons for their rejection. I. CRITERIA FOR JUDGING OR PLANNING A REport of EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH The criteria or rules that should be recognized in planning a report of educational research or in evaluating a report are stated in question form in the following summary. Preliminary to an attempt to apply these criteria a writer should seek a clear understanding of them by This chapter is reproduced with minor changes from: Monroe, Walter S. and Johnston, Nell B. "Reporting Educational Research," University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 38, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 25. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 63 p. This bulletin is now out of print. "There may be occasions when an abbreviated report should be made. For example, in an oral presentation it is undesirable to give a large number of details and one may appropriately ask his audience to assume that the technical procedure was satisfactory or at least to take his word for it. On such occasions, it is also undesirable to present the details of one's data. [57] |