pour enfler la voile, pas assez pour troubler la mer; à mesure que la barque s'éloignait, je voyais s'enfoncer sous l'horizon les lumières de Venise. Les cloches des hospices se faisaient entendre; nous approchâmes assez d'une de ces retraites pour entrevoir des moines qui regardaient passer notre gondole; ils avaient l'air de vieux nautonniers rentrés au port après de longues traverses. Observation 1.-In strict accordance with these principles, the IMPERFECT is used almost invariably in Dependent clauses when the Principal clause contains a verb of thinking, feeling, saying, etc., and in quotations: Osman me fit demander d'où je venais, où j'allais, ce que je voulais ?-Je répondis que j'allais en pèlerinage à Jérusalem. Les Mexicains, effrayés de la détonation des armes à feu, crurent que les Espagnols étaient des divinités armées du tonnerre. Observation 2.-The same rule holds good with quotations from letters, speeches, documents, etc. Je requs sa lettre: il me priait de lui donner de mes nouvelles. Observation 3,-To resume, the Imparfait answers the following different forms of English :He used (was wont) to say, He kept on saying; he would say; } - Il disait. (e) The PAST INDEFINITE (PRESENT PERFECT) expresses, as its composition (Present of Auxiliary Verb + Perf. Participle) implies, a fact now past (Synoptic Table, II. b); it is used— (1) like the English PRESENT PERFECT, to denote an action accomplished in a period not yet elapsed at the time of speaking: as, Il a fait bien chaud aujourd'hui It has been very warm to-day (this (cette semaine, etc.) week). Il y a longtemps que je ne l'ai vu. I have not seen him for a long time. (2) contrary to English usage, to denote an action, the result of which, rather than the action itself, is present to the mind; in familiar conversation and correspondence it is almost exclusively used to express past events: as, Je travaillais au jardin ; au premier coup de marteau j'ai couru si vite que je suis tombé en chemin. De quoi est-il mort ?— I was working in the garden; at the first knock at the door I ran so quickly that I fell down on the way. What did he die of?— Il est mort d'une fluxion de He died of an inflammation of the poitrine. lungs. Observation. -For the English Present Perfect rendered by the French Present after il y a, etc., see § 189 (b). The following extract from Volney will illustrate the contrast between IMPARFAIT, PRÉTÉRIT and INDÉFINI better than any detached sentences could do: Description of scenery. Result. Narrative of successive actions carried on. Result of past action LES RUINES DE PALMYRE. Le soleil venait de se coucher; un bandeau rougeâtre marquait encore sa trace à l'horizon lointain des monts de la Syrie; la pleine lune, à l'orient, s'élevait sur un fond bleuâtre; le ciel était pur, l'air calme et serein; l'éclat mourant du jour tempérait l'horreur des ténèbres . . . l'ombre croissait, et déjà mes regards ne distinguaient plus que les fantômes blanchâtres des colonnes et des murs Ces lieux solitaires, cette soirée paisible, cette scène majestueuse, imprimèrent à mon esprit un recueillement religieux. L'aspect d'une grande cité déserte, la mémoire des temps passés, la comparaison de l'état présent, tout éleva mon cœur à de hautes pensées. Je m'assis sur le tronc d'une colonne, je m'abandonnai à une rêverie profonde. Et l'histoire des temps passés se retraça vivement à ma pensée, je me rappelai ces siècles anciens où vingt peuples anciens existaient dans ces contrées; je me peignis l'Assyrie sur les rives du Tigre . Cette Syrie, me disais-je,* aujourd'hui presque dépeuplée, comptait alors cent villes puissantes. Ah, que sont devenus ces âges d'abondance et de vie? Que viewed from sont devenues tant de brillantes créations de la main de l'homme ? the present. Les temples se sont écroulés, les palais sont renversés * Me dis-je (Preterite) would be quite correct here; with this difference, however, that it would imply that the thought struck him then, whilst the Imparfait denotes that it gradually arose along with the ideas mentioned before. (f) The PLUSQUEPARFAIT and PASSÉ ANTÉRIEUR correspond to the English PLUPERFECT: both express action past in a time itself past, but with the same distinction between the two as already established between IMPARFAIT and PRÉTÉRIT, from which they are severally derived, i.e. (1) the PLUSQUEPARFAIT denotes actions usually done or already in progress, whilst (2) the PASSÉ ANTÉRIEUR denotes single actions just accomplished; both at a period itself past : as, As soon as he had finished, he set off. * A fact not accomplished (§ 110, Obs.). Observation. In accordance with this distinction, the PASSÉ ANTÉRIEUR, rather than the PLUPF., is used after Conjunctions of Time :— ... quand, lorsque, when; après que, after; à peine que, hardly que, aussitôt que, as soon as; ne... pas plus tôt.. que, no sooner. Elle n'eut pas plus tôt' appris cette nouvelle, qu'elle se mit à pleurer. when; dès than. 111 III-THE FUTURE TENSES. (a) The FUTURE PRESENT and FUTURE PERFECT are used as in English to express actions expected to happen or to be accomplished at some future time; with this difference between the two languages, that after the Conjunctions of time, quand, lorsque, when; dès que, aussitôt que, as soon as; tant que, aussi longtemps que, as long as, English usage admits of the PRESENT (Simple or Perfect) being employed instead of the FUTURE (Simple or Perfect), whilst in French the latter only may be used: as, Observation 1.-After si the Future (or Conditional) is, as a rule, only used when si means whether, but seldom when it means if or when: Observation 2.-The FUTURE PRESENT is often used to express an IMPERATIVE : Tu respecteras tes parents. Vous saurez que je suis un citoyen romain. Thou shalt respect thy parents. You must know that I am a Roman citizen. Observation 3.-Here may be classed the IMMEDIATE FUTURE viewed from the Present or Past: La marée va monter. La marée allait monter. The tide is about to rise. Observation 4.-An action to be done, whether viewed from the Present or Past, is rendered by the Present or Past of devoir :Je dois aller; je devais aller. I am to go; I was to go. Observation 5.-An action supposed to have happened may be expressed by the Future Perfect: Je me serai trahi moi-même. I probably have (must have) betrayed myself. L 112 The Conditional in-(a) Principal Clauses IV. THE CONDITIONAL. RÉSUMÉ. (1) dependent on a contingency, (2) for the sake of deference. The CONDITIONAL has two main functions; it is used- (1) to express an Action, the accomplishment of which depends on a condition either expressed in a subordinate clause, or understood. Observe that the Verb in the Conditional does not itself, as the term would seem to imply, express the condition : as, 1 The Condition expressed by an Adverbial phrase:— si j'étais dans votre compagnie. 2 The Condition understood:-si j'étais à votre place. (2) to express a Wish, Assertion, Supposition, or Doubt, etc., with deference or reservation: as, I should like to talk to you privately. I should wager anything that he is innocent. What, you presume ? Can it be true that he has been elected? Observation 1.-Here may be classed the use of the Conditional to state indirectly a fact for the accuracy of which the writer declines to be responsible :- Selon un journal du soir un incendie se serait déclaré hier au Havre; vingt maisons auraient été consumées. Observation 2.-The SUBJ. PLUPF. is frequently used instead of the Conditional Perf. :- This use of the Conditional is the natural outcome of the formation of that tense, which is in strict analogy with the formation of the Future: for just as the Future is formed by the Infinitive + Present of Avoir :- so the Conditional by -as, the Infinitive + Imperfect of Avoir : -a; (av)ons, -(av)ez, -ont; aimer + -(av)ais, -(av)ais, -(av)ait; -(av)ions, -(av)iez, -(av)aient. 113 (b) In Dependent Clauses as a FUTURE IMPERFECT, i.e. to express a Future contingency viewed from the Past (whilst the FUTURE PRESENT denotes a Future contingency viewed from the Present), especially after Verbs of decreeing, declaring, thinking, knowing, and the like; as, Je savais qu'il viendrait. (Je sais qu'il viendra.) Le duc ordonna que le jugement I knew that he would come. (I know that he will come.) (Le duc ordonne que le jugement (The duke rules that judgment sera prononcé.) Je croyais qu'il pleuvrait. (Je crois qu'il pleuvra.) shall be pronounced.) I thought it would rain. Observation.-Thus also in Concessive Clauses : Je ne le croirais pas, quand même je le verrais, or (reversing apodosis and protasis) Je le verrais que je ne le croirais pas. I should not believe it even if I saw it. Even though I were to see it, I should not believe it. V. THE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT CONJUNCTIVE IN The use of the SUBJUNCTIVE in Principal Sentences is limited to a few expressions (mostly ready-made phrases of an interjectional character); they may be classified into : (a) Optative and Concessive Clauses, i.e. expressing a Wish or Concession: as, (b) Dubitative Clauses, i.e. expressing Doubt or Reservation: as, Que je sache [Lat. quod sciam]. Pas que je sache. Je ne sache personne qui As far as I know. Not that I know of. Nobody as far as I know. [Comp. also the German :-Ich wüszte Niemand, der |