(b) THE SIMPLE INVERSION, i.e. placing the Subject—whether a Noun or Conj. Pers. Pron. after the VERB, is used in Paren

thetical Clauses inserted within or after a quotation: as,

"Si je n'étais pas Alexandre," dit le roi, "je voudrais être Diogène."

"Ah, Monsieur," dit-il, "j'en suis désespéré."

"Votre compassion," lui répondit l'arbuste, part d'un bon

naturel."

"Je suis à vous dans un moment," répondit-il.

(c) THE SIMPLE INVERSION, i.e. placing the Noun-Subjector any other part of speech except the Conj.-Pers.-Pronounafter the VERB, occurs after

Intransitive, Reflexive, and Passive Verbs, in sentences introduced (1) by an emphatic Predicative Complement: as,

Telle fut la fin de ce grand homme.

Bienheureux sont ceux qui ont faim et soif de la justice.

(2) by an Impersonal Pronoun: as,

Il lui est arrivé un grand malheur. Il lui est né un fils.

(3) by one of the following Adverbs:

Ainsi périt le dernier des Tar- Thus died the last of the Tarquins.

quins.

Tout à coup s'élève une tem- Suddenly there arose a furious storm. pête furieuse.

De là sont venues les guerres

civiles.

Hence arose the civil wars.

Thus after Adverbial Phrases: as,

En Italie règne un printemps In Italy there prevails an everlast

éternel.

Ce soir aura lieu une brillante

illumination.

ing spring.

This evening there will be a brilliant illumination.

The inversion after these Adverbs is optional.

(4) by a Relative Pronoun or a Subordinate Conjunction, when the Subject, on account of its adjuncts, is longer than the Verb:

as,

Le temps et l'argent que coûte l'éducation sont toujours bien employés.

Time and money spent on education

are always well employed.

Quand arriva à Paris la nou- When the news of the rout of the velle de la déroute de l'armée French army arrived in Paris.

française.

Observation 1.-For the sake of linking a sentence more closely to the preceding sentence, the following verbs are frequently placed first :

apparaître, to appear.
entrer, to enter.

rester, to remain.
suivre, to follow.

venir, to come,
survenir, to occur.

Also after être in a few idiomatic phrases, and in Enumerations: as,

Venait ensuite la noblesse en habit noir. N'est pas poète qui veut.
Reste à savoir s'il viendra.

Thus also in official language, i.e. in decrees, resolutions, etc.: as,
Sont éligibles: tous les citoyens de vingt ans révolus.

Observation 2.-The Verb is likewise placed first in optative clauses:

(a) has but one form in French,

(b) used in French instead of the English Pres. Perf., after il y a, etc.

II. The Past Tenses.

GENERAL RULE:-Imperfect and Preterite compared.

SPECIAL RULES:

(a) the Imperfect;

answering to the questions

(1) what used to be done?

(b) the Preterite;

(2) what was going on along with . ?
(3) what was already in progress?

answering to the questions-
(1) what occurred?

(2) what followed?

(3) what incident intervened?

Observation 1.-Impf. after si. Observation 2.-Fr. Impf. for English Plupf.

(c) the Imperfect describes accessory cir

cumstances.

(c) the Preterite narrates successive facts.

Observation.-Impf. used in dependent Clauses and in quotations.

(e) The Past Indefinite (Pres. Perf.) used

(1) answering to the English Pres. Perf.;
(2) answering to the English Perfect.

Extract illustrating the uses of Impf., Pret., and Pres. Perf.

(f) (1) Plusqueparfait, and (2) Antérieur compared.

Observation.-Antérieur preferred after Conjunctions of time.

III. The Future Tenses (Pres. and Perf.)

(a) used as in English, except after Conjunctions of time;
(b) in idiomatic phrases, answering to the English Pres.

Observation 1.-Future after si, meaning whether.
Observation 2.-Future expressing an Imperative.

Observn. 3, 4.-Future immediate, expressed by aller, devoir.
Observation 5.--Future Perf., expressing probability.

IV. The Conditional

(a) in Principal Clauses, to express (1) Contingency, (2) Deference or Reservation; (b) in Dependent Clauses Fut. Impf.

Observation.-Conditional in Concessive Clauses.

V. The Pres. and Impf. Conjunctive in Principal Clauses, if

(a) Optative or Concessive;

(b) Dubitative; (c) Conditional.

VI. The Imperative, used as in English.

Observation 1.-First pers. plur., used for singular.

Observation 2.-Imperative expressed by the Indicat. or Infinitive.

108

A SYNOPTIC TABLE OF THE TENSES-ENGLISH, FRENCH,
AND LATIN.

The Relations of the Indicative Tenses may be thus stated
Writing, as an action, is to me

:

109

From the above Table it will be seen that French, as compared with English, is deficient in special forms to express continuous action; as, I have (had, etc.) been writing; I shall be writing.

I. THE PRESENT INDICATIVE.

(a) As already noticed in the Synoptic Table of Tenses, the French language has, like Latin, but one form to express the different relations of the Present:

Le soleil luit.

Il me parle.

Il parle plusieurs langues. J'apprends que vous devez partir ce soir.

The sun shines (does shine).

The sun is shining.

He is speaking to me.
He speaks several languages.
I hear (that) you are to leave
this evening.

110

That has been going on now for two days.

Il y a trois mois que (= depuis I have been here these three
que) je suis ici.
months.

[Comp. Lat., Jam pridem cupio Alexandriam visere,

with French-Il y a longtemps que je désire visiter A.,

and English:-I have long been desirous to visit Alexandria.] Observation. The PRESENT is also occasionally used to denote an event, which, though Past or Future, is still or already vividly present to the mind:

Mais hier il m'aborde, et me prenant la main,

Ah, Monsieur, m'a-t-il dit, je vous attends demain (Boileau).

GENERAL PRINCIPLES:

II. PAST TENSES.

The IMPERFECT and PRETERITE compared.
The Imperfect causes the mind
to dwell upon a state of things
at some period in the past;
The Imperfect expresses simul-
taneousness;

The Imperfect describes;

The Preterite denotes the trans-
ition from one statetoa not her,
and carries on the recital.
the Preterite expresses succession.

the Preterite relates.

It is not so much the duration which makes the difference, as the fact of the writer conceiving an action from two different points of view. The same fact can be represented by either tense; but the Imperfect displays the fact as an extended surface, the Preterite brings it into one focus, and records it as a unit in the sum of facts; for to relate is to tell-(A. Vinet).

SPECIAL RULES:

(a) The IMPERFECT is used to describe a state of things or mode of existence in the past; habits, customs, i.e. actions usually or repeatedly done; it answers the questions :

(1) What used to be done at
some indefinite past time? as,
Les sciences florissaient en Chine
à une époque fort reculée.
Les anciens Romains brûlaient
leurs morts.

(b) The PRETERITE is used to narrate accomplished actions absolutely, i.e. irrespectively of their duration or frequency, and independently of other events present or past; it answers the questions:

(1) What occurred incidentally at some particular time? as, César écrivit au sénat : Je vins, je vis, je vainquis.

Les Romains brûlèrent Corinthe.

(2) What was going on along with another action? as, Pendant que Rome conquérait l'univers, il y avait dans ses murailles une guerre cachée. Nous attaquions l'ennemi qui se retirait.

La pluie tombait, et le tonnerre commençait à gronder.

Il me saluait quand il me voyait.

(3) What was already in progress when another incident occurred? as,

(2) What followed upon, or resulted from, another action? as, Il lut son discours, et les Jacobins le couvrirent d'applaudissements.

Nous attaquâmes l'ennemi qui se retira.

Une tuile lui tomba sur la tête et le tua.

Il me salua lorsqu'il me vit.

(3) What incident intervened when another action or state was already in progress? as,

Il était nuit quand nous arrivâmes à l'entrée du défilé. Les Normands parlaient la langue française à l'époque où ils débarquèrent en Angleterre.

Cette nouvelle, que tout le monde savait (knew) déjà depuis longtemps, je ne la sus (heard) que hier soir par le télégraphe.

Observation 1.-Here may be classed the use of the IMPERFECT to describe an action or state of things in progress or intended, but not accomplished (as the term IMPERFECT implies), in contradistinction to the PRETERITE, which always denotes an accomplished fact:

Ce poète mourait de faim, si on ne l'eût secouru.

Je devais comparaître le lendemain.

I was to appear on the next day.

Le poète Gilbert mourut à l'hôpital.

Je dus comparaître devant le juge.
I had to appear before the judge.

This is especially the case in clauses introduced by si, when, if; because the action is not considered as accomplished, but only supposed :—

S'il travaillait, il ne s'ennuierait pas.

...

Observation 2.-Just as, according to § 109 (b), the Present stands for the English Perfect after il y a, que, depuis. que, so the Fr. Impf. stands for the English Plupf.: as, Un hermite qui vivait depuis plus de trente ans tout seul.

(c) The IMPERFECT is further used to describe accessory circumstances bearing upon the quality, character, nature (colour, shape, size, etc.) of persons, things, or events mentioned in the principal clause:

A hermit who had been living more than thirty years quite alone.,

(d) The PRETERITE is further used to enumerate successive facts, and, whenever the narrative of these has been interrupted by the mention of accessory circumstances, to resume and carry on the narrative of further events :

Je quittai Venise le 28, et je m'embarquai à dix heures du soir pour me rendre en terre ferme; le vent de sud-est soufflait assez